Customized - (Will be sent in an e-mail as an attachment) Essay

Customized - (Will be sent in an e-mail as an attachment) - Essay Example In Roper v. Simmons, a seventeen year old by the name of Simmons confessed that he plotted the murder and burglary of an older woman. This case placed the question before the Courts as to whether or not a person younger than eighteen years old should be punished with the death penalty when convicted of crimes that would typically mandated capital punishment. The seventeen year old was originally sentenced to death for his crimes. This decision was later overturned by the Missouri Supreme Court and the defendant’s sentence was converted to life imprisonment. The Missouri Supreme Court stated that although there were cases that illustrated that there was a precedent set that allowed for capital punishment for those persons under the age of eighteen, that a ‘national consensus has developed against the execution of juvenile offenders’(2005). This case has since been heard by the United States Supreme Courts. Judicial activism and restraint are concepts that can be re adily viewed in the Roper v. Simmons case when it was decided by the Supreme Court in March 2005. The majority opinion addressed both the Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments when considering the affirmation of the Missouri Supreme Court decision. The Eighth Amendment prohibits cruel and unusual punishment against those in the United States. The Fourteenth Amendment allows all citizens, even those that have committed heinous crimes, equal protection of the laws. Per the court’s opinion, neither the Eighth nor the Fourteenth Amendment disallows the use of the death penalty for either persons that are under the age of eighteen or that are deemed mentally retarded. The Court’s majority states that twenty-two of thirty-seven death penalty states permit the death penalty for the offenders that are sixteen years old. The same thirty-seven states permitted the death penalty for

Cultural Challenges within a Health Care System Essay

Cultural Challenges within a Health Care System - Essay Example It is in this regard that this essay aims to present what the concept of culture is. Further, this paper would delve into the challenges this concept has to perceptions of health and illness in the health care profession. Finally, concrete examples of the challenges in Arabic culture would be provided for clarity and confirmation. Delaune and Ladner (2006) in their book on Fundamentals of Nursing defined culture as â€Å"knowledge, beliefs, behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, habits, customs, languages, symbols, rituals, ceremonies, and practices that are unique to a particular group of people†. (p.388) Simple folks ordinarily know culture as a way of life. To enable a health practitioner to incorporate the concept of culture and be able to address the challenges associated in the effective delivery of healthcare, one should be aware of the concept of cultural competence. According to Campinha-Bacote (1996) cultural competence is "a process, not an end point, in which the nurse continuously strives to achieve the ability to effectively work within the cultural context of an individual, family or community from a diverse cultural/ethnic background†. (p.6) The attainment of cultural competence is viewed as a process that links cultural awareness, cultural knowledge, cultural skill, cultural encounter and cultural desire. There are six organizational factors which were identified in two separate studies. When combined, these factors provide a guideline for nursing implications relative to a particular cultural group. The organizational factors presented by Spector (2004) and Stanhope and Lancaster (2004) distinguishes outstanding cultural aspects grouped accordingly, and would assist nurses in providing the appropriate patient care. These factors are: (1) communication; (2) space; (3) time orientation; (4) social organization; (5) environmental control; and (6) biological evaluations. â€Å"Arabic is the key to understanding the Arabs, their culture, and

Little thing Essay Example for Free

Little thing Essay Of the five poems I have selected beforehand, I happen to choose the poem â€Å"The Pebble†. It took me awhile to choose which poem to talk about but somehow, I keep coming back in reading this poem. I favour this poem compared to the other four because of the simplicity it implies. It starts off with the title which gives out a plain imagery of the thing that will be talked about. The poem struck me in the way that it talked about a very little thing. A thing that is often taken for granted. Nobody would actually pay much attention to a pebble. Usually, the pebble is just an add-on to an aquarium or a little thing to beautify a garden. Even so, be it in an aquarium or a garden, the object of concentration is not the pebble. But in this poem, the pebble holds the main attraction. My attention was taken away by the description given to a pebble. And as to how the poem unfolds, the comparison and contrast of a pebble and that to a person was stated plainly, but not directly though. Often times we think of a use for a certain thing and eventually we talk about it or write about it. In any case, we share that what is important. So, in the case of this poem, a pebble never seemed to be something important. Most of the time, people don’t seem to bother about anything regarding a pebble. A poem expresses the emotions of a writer and usually in the state of turmoil. What is captivating about this poem is that there isn’t much of a turmoil expressed in words for this. It describes what a pebble is, how a pebble could be and compared it as to how a person could feel. I feel a certain depth in this poem, though I doubt if I could eventually express that depth. I somehow could feel that this poem has something more than what it is giving. The problem is just that I’m still trying to measure up the feeling conveyed by this poem. Somehow, I have a strange idea of being able to fathom what the poem holds, but because of its vividness, I’m having a hard time grasping the concept it implies. Such ironic feelings are extracted from my mind but I’m trying though to put it into words. The poem has an intrinsic impact on me. I don’t have much of an idea of the author but as I read the poem over and over again, and internalize it somehow, I gain knowledge to the truth it may imply. With how I describe it, the poem may seem to be a prayer, but actually, it’s not. It’s not everyday that we read a poem which is presented so simply. I just have a feeling that the writer wrote this according to how he perceives the truth of the pebble. A pebble which is a little stone that eventually could last longer than any other thing. Part four The Pebble is a very interesting poem. From the title itself, it projects a literary piece about simplicity. As we have seen pebbles and grasp a meaning of this thing, it is an object that is pretty much of little value. But this thing has been often times used as an instrument for symbolism. It doesn’t actually become the symbol, but yet, it is used as a contributor for the statement of the symbol. Like the ripples on the water, to make the ripples, the pebble is used as the object that is thrown to create the ripples. But in this situation, the impact was made by the pebble but the symbol was the ripple. Interpretation of the Poem At the start of the poem, the pebble is described as a perfect creature. It is here that we can see that the object has been given the traits as that of a person. Attributing the perfection that the writer is talking about for the pebble would be on its physical aspect. The physical description of pebbles which are often perfectly oval in shape with a smooth surface, having no cracks or lumps, would suit the description of excellence or perfection. In comparison to a person, a perfect creature would then be one without cracks or perhaps loopholes and one who doesn’t have any lumps. Perfection in our own view would be that of someone who doesn’t possess any frailties, errors and does all things without mistakes and stands as clean as ever. But as the writer proceeds with the poem, it mentioned that it could only be equalled to itself and is aware of its limits. A perfect thing that cannot be compared by anything except itself and has limits, were the descriptions emphasized by the poet. Still, this has been compared to that of a person. Perfection does not imply that the person has no limits. With this description then, we could imply that in perfection, it is being and doing something flawlessly but in the range of one’s limits. Often, when we talk about perfection, it is in comparison already to supreme beings or gods. But the poet has stated that what could be compared to one creature would not be anyone else, but only with it. Indeed, the concept of uniqueness has been unfolded. As the poem proceeds, it has been defined by the author that the meaning this object holds, is the meaning it holds from the time it has been made. â€Å"A pebbly meaning† would mean the identity that this object holds and whatever that is, that is the true meaning of the thing. Same goes if related again to a person, that the definition or meaning of who we are is the self. It is not somebody else that hold the meaning of our life, but it is our self, the one with us from the beginning, that defines what we are. Another idea of the â€Å"pebbly meaning† would be the concept of a pebble which is not of great significance but just possesses the simplicity that it is as an object. It is not a big rock that could smash something smaller or a stone which may be small but definitely holds weight. It is not a mountain that shows greatness just by looking at it. It is emphasizing a pebble, small, perhaps insignificant, and does not hold much weight. But as we ponder on the purpose as to why it exists, it holds more than what it is actually letting us see. The poem describes further that the pebble is one thing that doesn’t have a specific characteristic that would be intimidating and though it is unique and different, it stands with its uniqueness without any other factor that might entice anybody. As all other things or people would need more than what they have, like they would go for enhancing the appearance or develop any form of attractive facilities for others to see or witness, the pebble sticks with what it has. Despite the simplicity or plainness it holds, it still has its dignity and pride. It is contradicting to the idea that without pride is simplicity. Being simple does not mean that one does not hold any value of himself. It doesn’t also mean that there is no regard for the self. Instead, inside that simplicity, an aura of pride and dignity emanates. It’s just that people don’t get to see it because they are more aware of the obvious things. As the poem proceeds, the writer was somehow humbled down to the value of the pebble that in the changing world, struggling all the time for attention and importance, the pebble or anyone that could be related to a pebble, simply sits quietly and wait. In the end, all the others vanish, and it’s just the pebble that remains. Those who do not live such complicated lives could eventually see all that is happening and live longer than most of the people. Conclusion The poem is written as a realization in life. Often times people would prefer to have the symbol of a mountain, or something powerful and bigger. This is so because of how we see our life, we prefer to have the control especially when we are not in control in reality. We want to be in power when in reality we are weak and helpless. Our symbols tell what we really are and it’s has always been the opposite of what we are. In this poem, the concept of simplicity and the awakening of humility are emphasized. Simplicity is held in the object of the pebble. The object of no complications and the writer is in the point of using this imagery to a person’s life. The awakening of the humility is expressed in the last two stanzas of the poem where the writer has gone to see the impact of a pebble and how it absorbs everything there is without complaining. This is a contradiction to people where complaining has been made a hobby and dissatisfaction always a companion. Before going to the point of appreciating, people tend to complain, grumble and then when the worse has come, perhaps, mellow down and bear with the idea of appreciating something. The poet has created a very good concept of life. The poem written is also expressed the same way as that of the idea it intends to convey. Simplicity indeed is beauty and only few have seen it.

Accessibility and usability: Web technologies

Accessibility and usability: Web technologies Abstract: The relationship between accessibility and usability can be a contentious issue especially with the advent of new web technologies. Does accessibility have an adverse effect on usability and vice versa and is this in anyway affected by new web technologies? With the advent of new web technologies it is thought by some that the two supposedly bipolar methodologies of web design and evaluation contradict one another even more. In order to determine if this is in fact true this paper will look at the effect of new web technologies on accessibility and usability and the current practices in each of these areas. This paper considers various views on this topic, compares definitions and methodologies and concludes that even when using new web technologies, embracing both sets of practices and recognizing their points of similarity, it is still possible, with considered and judicious use of new web technologies to make a web design that is both usable and accessible. 1. Introduction Some accessibility practitioners believe that by applying new web technologies to a web design, that because of the added level of complexity, they create another barrier to disabled people (Everett 2006). Some usability practitioners believe that by enforcing accessibility practices that the interactivity will in some way suffer (Koch 2002). In terms of new web technologies is this still the case. Is there any merit in these beliefs? Can common ground be found to achieve the some kind of balance? There appears to be a lack of clarity of what constitutes a usable web site and misunderstanding of what constitutes a truly accessible website. The aim of this paper is to discuss the relationship between usability and accessibility by firstly looking at the differences between them and where they overlap. We will then need to understand current thinking on the relationship between accessibility and usability and how it is affected by current web technologies. Will Web Standards and new web technologies have an effect on accessibility and usability? With the advent of Web standards (Featherstone et al. The Web Standards Project 1998) and updated web accessibility guidelines (Henry et al. W3C 2008) it has become easier for developers to create sites that are more usable and accessible. This paper will also investigate technologies such as AJAX (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML)(Garrett 2005), and whether this will have any further effect on the relationship between accessibility and usability 2. Definitions and methodologies 2.1 New web technologies (Web 2.0) The concept of Web2.0 began with a conference brainstorming session. Members noted that far from being unviable after 2001, when many online businesses collapsed, the web was more important than ever, with exciting new applications and sites appearing regularly (OReilly 2002). Web 2.0 websites are characterized by their rich and interactive content. This is in stark contrast to the static HTML. By using scripting technologies such as JavaScript an AJAX (Garrett 2005) it is now possible to create web-based applications that resemble desktop applications with the advantage of being able to access them from almost anywhere. Through the use of scripting libraries it is now possible to add interactive desktop-like interface items to web pages and provide the ability to allow users to make changes to current content. Core characteristics of Web 2.0 web sites are (OReilly 2002): Web Services, not packaged software (Web applications) User control over data sources that become more comprehensive the more people use them (Wikis) Users trusted as co-developers (Wikis, blogs) Harnessing collective intelligence Software available to almost any device (Mobile Apps) Lightweight user interfaces and development models With all of these new technologies and coding techniques, what effect do they have on the relationship between accessibility and usability? Web 2.0 has the potential to enhance usability due to the added ability to create a more rich and interactive environment for the website user. However with all of these new technologies, can they be interpreted by assistive technologies used by disabled users? Have disabled users been considered? Will methodologies such as design and evaluation need to change? 2.2 Accessibility The web gives people with disabilities the ability to do things that they would be unable to do via any other avenue. The web offers them freedom and independence. However, all of these possibilities are removed if a web site is not created in an accessible way. Essentially accessibility can be defined as access for everyone no matter what disability they suffer from (Berners-Lee, via Henry W3C 2009). Other have a more flexible approach such as Clark (2002) where he suggests that allowances of for disabled users should be made to make a website accessible. Another term used in connection with Accessibility is Universal Design, which incorporates elements of usability with the goal of making websites or any product as usable as possible by as many people as possible without requiring adapted or specialized design. (Mace 2008) The guidelines by which most accessibility practitioners develop and evaluate websites is Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0 which are updated standards developed by The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). These are written to accommodate new technologies and provide better and more comprehensive help for developers and designers when trying to make websites accessible. These standards consist of 12 guidelines that are organized under 4 principles: perceivable, operable, understandable, and robust. For each guideline, there are testable success criteria, which are at three levels of priority: A, AA, and AAA with all A guidelines having the highest priority (Caldwell et al. W3C 2008). The four principles of the WCAG 2.0 guidelines can be explained as follows (Caldwell et al. W3C 2008): Perceivable Web content should be made available to any or all of the senses sight, hearing, and/or touch Operable Interface objects such as forms, controls, and navigation must be operable independent of the input method Understandable The sites content, information and interface must be understandable to the target audience Robust Sites can be used reliably by a wide variety of user agents such as web browsers, mobile devices and assistive technologies The W3C also lists various methods for evaluating websites for accessibility to determine their compliance with WCAG (Abou-Zahra et al. W3C WAI 2008). Various methods including preliminary reviews, manual and automated evaluation tools, are used to determine compliance. When developing websites whether with new technologies or not it is recommended that Web Standards coding practices should be used to attain conformance with WCAG 2.0. Web standards are technologies and practices established by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), along with other groups and standards bodies for creating and interpreting web-based content. By making use of these technologies it is possible to create web content that benefit a greater number of users and at the same time making this content usable in the long-term regardless of technology changes (Featherstone et al. WASP 2006). The Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) has developed an Accessible Rich Internet Applications Suite (ARIA) in order to make rich internet content more accessible for people with disabilities (Henry et al. W3C 2009). This suite is currently not fully supported in all user agents (browsers) and AJAX libraries (Henry et al. W3C 2009). Will updated accessibility practices be able to enhance or be incorporated into usability practices? 2.3 Usability The generally accepted definition for usability in ISO 9241 states: the extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use Usability is defined by five quality components (Nielsen 2003): Learnability: Ease with which a basic task can be completed at the first attempt. Efficiency: The speed with which a task is performed Memorability: The ease with which an interface will be remembered. Errors: The number and severity of errors Satisfaction: The level of enjoyment or pleasure when using an interface An extension of usability is the term User-Centered Design (UCD) (Preece et al. 2006), where users are involved throughout the lifecycle of website developments by using structured methodologies in order to determine and meet all the needs of the target user (Usability.gov 2009). Some of the techniques used include (Usability.gov 2009): Usability testing Representative users are observed while attempting to complete set tasks. Notes on the observations of user behavior and comments are made. Card sorting Participants arrange and even label cards representing site content into logical groups and categories to inform the information architecture of a site design. Individual interviews Individual participants are interviewed typically for 30 minutes to an hour either in person, by telephone, or by any means available which allows conversation. These interviews can be formal or informal and do not involve observation. Contextual interview or field studies Contextual interviews are similar to user testing because the users are observed, however they are not given a set of task but are rather observed in there natural environment. Observers also take notes. Surveys These are used to obtain data from large groups of people in a relatively short time and are normally used to gather user requirements. They can also be used for summative usability evaluation. Focus groups These are usually a discussion among eight to twelve current users or potential users or stakeholders of your site conducted by an experienced moderator. Focus groups typically lasts approximately two hours and covers a range of topics that are decided on beforehand. Task analysis Is used to determine the typical tasks that users perform to achieve a particular goal. Work patterns are studied and broken down to provide a list of tasks and the order in which they are performed. Prototypes Are representations of your website/application shown to users in order to inform the design and determine any major defects before proceeding with further development. These can range from paper drawings (low-fidelity) to near complete products (high-fidelity). Expert evaluations Experts are asked to evaluate sites for usability employing various methods such as heuristic evaluation where sites are evaluated against a set of usability principles. Other methods such as Cognitive walkthroughs and pluralistic evaluation are used (Preece et al. 2006). Will usability practices need to include accessibility practices in order to include people with disabilities or will doing this minimize usability of web products? 3. Relationship 3.1 Would disabled users also benefit if usability practitioners considered accessibility guidelines as part of the efficiency and satisfaction of a site? By analyzing the definitions for accessibility and usability to understand their relationship to one another we can see that accessibility focuses on the making allowances to improve the experience for a particular group of users whereas usability focuses on the effectiveness, satisfaction and efficiency in achieving a specified goal of a particular user when using a website. We can see here that the goals are similar albeit with a slight difference in focus. Disabled users can be considered a group of users with varying needs however; in many cases they are not considered when websites are being built (Disability Rights Commission 2004). If a site is not accessible to a user it will obviously not be an enjoyable or effective experience (Clark 2002). With usability the target audience is determined by means of usability techniques such as questionnaires, surveys and focus groups (Preece et al. 2006). However in many cases accessibility practitioners do not attempt to determine the level of use by a particular disability group for a specified website (Chandrashekar et al. 2006). Some work has been done in this area, however the uptake has not been as expected (Sloan 2006). In addition when websites are developed the focus of the accessibility effort is placed on the needs of blind users without bearing in mind the needs of other user groups such as those with colour-blindness or low vision. This is mainly due to a lack of awareness of what disability groups exist, besides blind users, and the varying difficulties encountered by these people. The WCAG 2.0 guidelines attempt to cover these areas but without being able to see these users encounter problems there is little impact and therefore less motivation to cater for these users. From this we can deduce that disabled users should be included as a potential target group and this should be determined by incorporating usability techniques into web accessibility practices. 3.2 Should both sets of guidelines and principles be adopted by both sets of practitioners or should a single Universal set of guidelines be used? If we compare the most commonly used guidelines of both parties we can see that there are similarities. Usability practitioners commonly make use of Nielsens usability heuristics to perform expert evaluations (Nielsen 1994): Visibility of system status Information should be given to the user via appropriate and reasonably timed feedback Match between system and the real world Language and terms that are familiar to the target audience should be used. Information should be presented naturally and logically. User control and freedom If a user makes a mistake they must be able to exit the function easily or undo the action without being confronted by confusing and unnecessary screens or dialogs. Consistency and standards The system should be consistent in terms of words to indicate actions, navigation and the system should use conventions that the user is accustomed to. Error prevention Always attempt to prevent the error in the design instead of providing good error messages Recognition rather than recall System elements, actions and objects should always be visible or easy to retrieve in order to alleviate the need for recall of previous actions or instructions. Flexibility and efficiency of use The system should be flexible enough to accommodate experienced and inexperienced users. The system should be configurable to allow access to frequently used actions. Aesthetic and minimalist design Only important and relevant information should be displayed in dialogues. Irrelevant or unnecessary information will detract or diminish the visibility of important information. Help users recognize, diagnose, and recover from errors Messages and suggested solutions to problems should be written in language that is plain, precise and constructive. Help and documentation If necessary, documentation should be focused, concise, concrete and easy to locate Now let us expand on the four principles of the WCAG 2.0 accessibility guidelines mentioned in section 2.1(WCAG 2008) and point out any similarities between these and Nielsens heuristics. Perceivable Web content should be made available to any or all of the senses sight, hearing, and/or touch. Usability guidelines for Visibility of System Status, Recognition rather than recall (Nielsen 1994) will fail for the disabled user if the items in the site are not perceivable. Operable Interface objects such as forms, controls, and navigation must be operable independent of the input method User control and freedom and Flexibility and efficiency of use (Nielsen 1994) guidelines are not satisfied if they are not operable. If a site is very complex or unattractive it can be difficult to operate therefore it should make use of Aesthetic and minimalist design (Nielsen 1994). A site cannot be operated if it does not apply Consistency and standards (Nielsen 1994). Understandable The sites content, information and interface must be understandable to the target audience User control and freedom, Consistency and standards, Error prevention (Nielsen 1994) cannot occur if the content is not understandable. Help and documentation (Nielsen 1994) is necessary to improve understanding. It also not possible to Help users recognize, diagnose, and recover from errors (Nielsen 1994) if the site cannot be understood. Robust Sites can be used reliably by a wide variety of user agents such as web browsers, mobile devices and assistive technologies. In many cases minimalist design (Nielsen 1994) of a website will allow for web standards-based coding techniques to be employed which will allow it to be used on a variety of devices. Also be easier to follow platform conventions in terms of Consistency and standards (Nielsen 1994). As we can see there is an overlap between the two sets of principles. This overlap in principles could be the reason that Thatcher et al. (2003) where he suggests that accessibility issues are a type of usability problem hence accessibility is a subset of usability. Conversely Universal usability as conceptualized by Shneiderman (2003) where usability problems are thought of as a subset of accessibility problems, which expands the scope of usability to include disabled users in usability evaluations. However it is suggested the relationship between accessibility and usability isnt simply a case of applying a universal approach but that issues also be grouped into categories (Petrie et al. 2007). These being: Problems that only disabled users experience are referred to as pure accessibility problems Problems that only able-bodied users experience are referred to as pure usability problems Problems that both groups of users experience are referred to as universal usability problems The use of a universal set of guidelines is a good starting point however they will need to be refined to include the various accessibility and usability problems encountered by disabled and able-bodied users. 3.3 Should accessibility professionals employ usability practices? Usability practitioners employ numerous methods to determine the effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction of a project whereas accessibility practitioners will use various techniques and methods to achieve compliance with a set of guidelines. User testing is used by both sets of practitioners, more so by usability practitioners (Chandrashekar et al. 2006). However the difference being that usability practitioners will use this method early on and throughout the design process (Preece et al. 2006 p412). Accessibility practitioners will employ this method at the end of the project. Both groups make use of design guidelines (section 3.2). However guidelines are possibly not the most effective way of evaluating accessibility or usability as they are to be used as guidance but cannot by their nature guarantee the desired results. There are similarities between the accessibility and usability principles with accessibility guidelines being more technical in nature (Kelly et al. 2007), as they require websites to present a particular level of coding. However there are a number of non-technical accessibility guidelines. It is often thought that by making use of accessibility guidelines or universal design techniques that a site will be accessible by all. However this is not necessarily the case (Petrie 2007). Usability guidelines can also present problems (Spool 2002). As with the use of any guidelines they can conflict with one another, they can be misinterpreted and misapplied and they do not guarantee results. In practice accessibility experts will evaluate web sites against guidelines as opposed to user testing. However this has also been found to not be the most effective way of making a website accessible as shown by Disability Rights Commission (DRC) investigation, into website accessibility for disabled people. The study found that designers could not be expected to understand and repair the problems that disabled users experience when visiting a website. To overcome this problem the report suggests that disabled users should be directly involved in the development process (Disability Rights Commission 2004). Guidelines are important from a technical standpoint however it is also important to recognize that the guidelines cannot accommodate all users all of the time. The areas where the guidelines are not practical or important need to be clearly identified and alternate methods need to be identified in order to achieve accessibility (Kelly et al. 2007). Since the publication of the WCAG 2.0 in 2008, however, there are a variety of success criteria and methods suggested that could be used to achieve accessibility (Henry 2008). This being the case guidelines for measuring accessibility is still used predominantly because of the difference in cost between an expert evaluation and user testing and the availability of participants. It is often difficult to get a broad spectrum of users with varying disabilities and therefore accessibility practitioners inevitably end up repeatedly utilizing the same participants for disabled user testing. The reason cost is an issue is due to the fact that accessibility is not built into the project from the beginning and that many do not view it as being of great importance as the number of disabled users is thought to be proportionately very low in comparison with non-disabled users. However there is a strong business case for including disabled users. Christopherson (2007) states: The combined spending power of the 10 million people with a disability in the UK amounts to  £80 billion. There are 6 million people in the UK with dyslexia, with severe cases numbering around 4 million. Many users do not class themselves as disabled even though they may often suffer from disabilities that arent physically manifested such as age related issues, colour-blindness or cognitive difficulties. Some websites do not cater for older devices. By not including disabled users fully may exclude many users from a website which could mean a significant loss in revenue. In many cases accessibility testing is normally regarded as something that can be quickly done at the end of a project in order to comply with the legal obligations of a project. This approach to web accessibility is very shortsighted and potentially costly. If accessibility problems are encountered at the end of a project they can be very difficult to rectify after the fact. As is now recognized in the usability field, it is more efficient and cost effective to include usability evaluation from the beginning and throughout a project. This should also the case for accessibility evaluation as promoted by Henry (2007) in his book Just Ask: Integrating Accessibility Throughout Design. The main chapters deal with: The importance of building accessibility at the beginning and throughout the project Including disabled users and not relying only on standards and guidelines Tips on how to deal with disabled users It is better to involve disabled users throughout the lifespan of a project rather than relying on guidelines alone. By involving disabled users practitioners may be able to determine accessibility issues and usability issues which may have been otherwise missed in usability testing (Petrie 2007 pp 405). Accessibility professionals should not adopt usability principles if they are only going to rely on guidelines. However the usability practice of including actual users in evaluation and design from the start and throughout a project should be adopted. 3.4 What effect do new technologies have on usability? As stated earlier (section 2.1) new web technologies can enhance usability. Is this statement true? Does the ability to add more interactivity to a website improve the usability? According to Nielsen (2007) Web 2.0 technologies add more complexity to a website where it is sometimes not necessary and divert design resources. In his report he found amongst other things that: Internet applications were too complex Community content has too few users on the Internet Features merged from different websites (Mashups) can cause branding confusion Application type websites will benefit most from the use Web 2.0 technologies. Most other websites have very few repeated actions thus not requiring the use of this technology. Therefore as Nielsen (2007) states that efficiency is not as important as simplicity and that modest use of Web 2.0 technologies can be of benefit, however the benefits of advanced features have little effect in improving the users experience. If used modestly new technologies can be beneficial for certain types of user experience such as web applications. 3.5 What effect does new technologies have on accessibility? In a study by Hailpern et al. (2009) it was found that Web 2.0 applications force blind users to adapt to an inaccessible use model, although the evolution of technologies such as WAI-ARIA (section 2.3) and AJAX (section 2.3) may change this in the future. Some believe that Web 2.0 will make it more difficult to create accessible websites. Christopherson via Everett (2006) states that if accessibility is not kept in mind there is a greater chance that Web 2.0 will cause problems for disabled users. Basically Web 2.0 adds a further level of complexity, both in terms of accessibility and usability and this will need to be considered throughout the design process if these technologies are going to be used. 4. Conclusion To make sites that are usable and accessible we will need to change our thinking of usability. Is your site still usable if sighted people can fully and conveniently use it but it is a frustrating exercise for a blind person? (Clark 2003) In understanding the concept of an accessible site we have to understand what an accessible site is. A disabled persons experience of a website does not have to be identical to that of an able-bodied person. If accessibility features are simple and well written they should be unnoticed (Clark 2002). Clark (2002) reiterates, Equality is a misnomer. Equivalency is the goal. As can be seen from the above discussion there is an overlap between the definitions and methodologies employed by accessibility and usability practitioners and that there is scope for accessibility guidelines to be employed by usability practitioners and vice versa. However this is not simply a case of making a universal set of guidelines, as firstly accessibility and usability issues cannot be universally grouped and that there are distinct groups of accessibility issues. Secondly the use solely of guidelines is fraught with controversy and do not necessarily guarantee that a site will be accessible or usable. Involving users both disabled and able-bodied throughout the project lifecycle is the most effective approach in achieving the most usable and accessible product. Involving disabled users is also makes good business sense. Web 2.0 technologies do have an effect on the relationship between accessibility and usability. For them to not have a negative effect they need to be used with discretion always bearing in mind that they add a level of complexity for both able-bodied and disabled users. Therefore we can conclude that that by embracing the techniques and methodologies and recognizing points of similarity between usability and accessibility practices, and with modest and careful, considered use of new web technologies a web design can be made both usable and accessible. References Abou-Zahra, S (ed) (2008) Evaluating Web Sites for Accessibility: Overview. Worldwide Web Consortium, Web Accessibility Initiative. Available at: http://www.w3.org/WAI/eval/Overview.html. Accessed 7 December 2009. Caldwell, B, Cooper, M, Reid, LG Vanderheiden, G (2008) Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0. Available at: http://www.w3.org/TR/2008/REC-WCAG20-20081211/. Accessed 7 December 2009. Christopherson, R (2007) Making the business case for accessibility. AbilityNet. Available at: http://www.abilitynet.org.uk/webbusinesscase. Accessed 7 December 2009. Chandrashekar, S, Fels, D, Stockman, T, Benedyk, R. (2006) Using think aloud protocol with blind users: A case for inclusive usability evaluation methods. Proceedings of the 8th international ACM SIGACCESS conference on computers and accessibility, Portland, Oregon Clark, J (2002) Building Accessible Websites. New Riders. Available at: http://joeclark.org/book/. Accessed 7 December 2009. Disability Rights Commission (2004) The web: access and inclusion for disabled people. Available at: http://joeclark.org/dossiers/DRC-GB.html. Accessed 7 December 2009. Everett, C (2006) Web 2.0: A step backwards for accessibility? ZDNet.co.uk. Available at: http://resources.zdnet.co.uk/articles/0,1000001991,39284428,00.htm. Accessed 7 December 2009. Featherstone, D. Gustavson, A. Sims, G (1998) Working together for standards The Web Standards Project. Available at: http://www.webstandards.org. Accessed 7 December 2009. Garrett, JJ (2005) Ajax: A New Approach to Web Applications. Adaptive Path. http://www.adaptivepath.com/ideas/essays/archives/000385.php. Accessed 7 December 2009. Hailpern, J, Guarino-Reid, L, Boardman, R, Annam, S (2009) Web 2.0: blind to an accessible new world. Proceedings of the 18th international Conference on World Wide Web (Madrid, Spain, April 20 24, 2009). WWW 09. ACM, New York, NY. Henry, SL (2009) W3C: Accessibility. Worldwide Web Consortium. Available at: http://www.w3.org/standards/webdesign/accessibility. Accessed 7 December 2009. Henry, SL (2007) Just Ask: Integrating Accessibility Throughout Design. Madison, WI. Available at: http://www.uiAccess.com/JustAsk/. Accessed 7 December 2009.

The Justice System Essay -- essays research papers fc

The Justice System Looking into criminal justice procedure, many administrations are at work. Starting with the police, to the courts and concluding in corrections. Though all these sectors have different tasks, their combined focus is processing the law. Regardless what the process is called criminal justice will continue to serve with discretion, conviction, and correction. When first presented with the question whether criminal justice is a system, non-system, and network I leaned toward a network. Throughout our discussions, lectures, and readings I felt the process presented itself as a network. Intertwined divisions working for a common goal. Further into my research and help from Webster, I decided that the criminal justice process is a system that is why it is called the criminal justice system and has been so, for many years. This system includes many networks that serve a common purpose, are dependent upon one another, and keep each other in check. Many may try to disagree as Alvine Cohn does in his introduction to Improving Management in Criminal Justice. He stated that "†¦no true system actually exists†¦(it) is a collection of disparate, fragmented services and programs, with many interrelationships, but (has) no†¦direction, philosophy, or mission"(Cohn, 7-8). This could be the farthest from the truth considering the system is always changing to better the process. This philosophy or mission that he speaks of does not have to be written on paper to exist. Though the absence of a clearly explained and comprehendible goal may result in conflict (Cohn, 9), this is inevitable when arguing two different sides. Regardless of what professionals and critics call it, it is "†¦(a) social control mechanism which†¦society calls the justice system"(Jones, 83). This system may differ from other systems, but it still includes the main characteristics of that which a system is defined. A system defined in Webster's Collegiate Dictionary is " †¦an organization forming a network especially for distributing something or serving a common purpose†¦" Using this definition we can include all arguments for the progression of criminal justice as a network since a system comprises many networks. This system has interrelated departments that look to each other to fulfill common goals of prevention and justice. Along with this common goal are common practices. The most ... .... Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York, NY. 1983. www.m-w.com/cgi-bon/dictionary. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. March 25, 2001. Bibliography ALDER,F., MUELLER,G.O.W., LAUFER,W.S. Criminal Justice; an introduction. second edition. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. US. 2000 COHN, Alvin W., WARD, Benjamin. Improving Management in Criminal Justice. Sage Publications. Beverly Hills, CA. 1980. COLE, George F. The American System of Criminal Justice. Wadsworth Publishing Co, Inc. Belmont, CA. 1975. HANCOOK,Barry, SHARP,Paul. Criminal Justice in America; theory, practice, and policy. second edition. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. 2000. JACKSON, Bruce. Law and Disorder; Criminal justice in america. University of Illinois Press. US. 1984. JONES, William, Jr. Criminal Justice Administration. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York, NY. 1983 KALINICH, KLOFAS, STOJKOVIC. The Administration and Management of Criminal Justice Organizations. Waveland Press, Inc. Prospect Heights,IL. 1994 www.albany.edu/sourcebook/. section 1. Bureau of Justice Statistics. March 25, 2001. www.m-w.com/cgi-bon/dictionary. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. March 25, 2001.

Christian Justice and Righteousness Essay -- Martin Luther, theology, s

As a reformer, Martin Luther certainly changed the world of the Church. Would you say that his opposition to the existing religious authority of his day could be justified from a scriptural standpoint? How might it not? Which biblical principles affect your own responsibility to promote justice and righteousness when such actions come into conflict with an established order? Â   The actions of Martin Luther in the 1500s have reached almost mythical stature among Christians. Luther's deeds had much more radical consequences than he could have foreseen as he first challenged the existing church. He sparked a revolution of thought, a break from the Roman Catholic Church system and a return to a faith based upon Scripture alone. Though Martin Luther's choices were for an essential cause and brought fantastic results, a question must be answered before Christians can truly call him a hero of the faith. The question is this: Was Luther's challenge of his earthly authorities justifiable by the scripture? Â   The answer is not instantly obvious, nor do the Scriptur...

Capabilities and Effects of Background Music Essay

Abstract Nonverbal communication speaks louder than verbal communication; therefore, nonverbal communication, such as background music, needs to be sensibly evaluated. As a form of nonverbal communication, background music is capable of influencing a target audience. In advertising, emotions can be shifted depending on the music being played in the background and the same feelings are then transferred to the product, providing a tremendous advantage in business (Dillman Carpentier, 2010). Music can change one’s mood; in the workplace, an improved mood allows employees to be more content and, overall, more productive. In addition, with the right musical selection, the music is able to increase the amount of information an individual is able to retain (Balch & Lewis, 1996). Various aspects from several studies have been examined, demonstrating the power of background music and music in general. The Capabilities and Effects of Background Music Nonverbal communication may be unintentional and speakers may not be aware of their behaviors or it may be just the opposite (Troester & Mester, 2007). However, background music is often carefully selected in order to aid in the desired goal, particularly in advertising (Dillman Carpentier, 2010; Kellaris, Cox, & Cox, 1993). The goals of every businessperson may not be the same; yet, the capabilities and effects of music are rather consistent (Dillman Carpentier, 2010). Whether via television, radio, or in person, music is able to affect the moods of those in the audience (Knobloch, 2003). Music also has the ability to improve the performance of the task at hand of an individual (Fassbender, Richards, Bilgin, Thompson, & Heiden, 2012). According to Balch and Lewis (1996), an increase in memory is also induced by music. In any aspect of business, the effects of music can be utilized and even increase efficiency and productivity. Mood Alteration One’s mood determines the way one thinks and acts and what is said (Knobloch, 2003; Hunter, Schellenberg, & Schimmack, 2010). According to Hunter et al., â€Å"music is the language of emotions† (p. 47). The perception of music determines the emotion felt. The perception of happiness is more often transferred to feeling happy than the perception of sadness and feeling sad (Hunter, Schellenberg, & Schimmack, 2010). Davies (2011) refers to the emotions of music as being contagious. When one is around people who are depressed, that person’s mood adjusts closer to those who are in the depressed state. Similarly, although a person may not actually be sad, a sad part in a movie can make that person feel sad; the same applies to music. Hearing music that sounds happy can make one feel happy and to the contrary. Davies models this as a cause and effect relationship. The music being heard is the cause and the effect is one’s reaction to the music. Whether the reaction is happy or sad is dependent upon the perception of the music to the listener. Sounds that reflect happiness include little amplitude variation, a vast pitch variety, and fast tempo (Hatfield, Cacioppo, & Rapson, 1993). Therefore, when one hears these sounds of happy music, emotional contagion is invoked on the subject and causes that person to feel happy. In advertisements, music is selected as an enhancement but also to affect mood. It is a company’s goal to influence potential buyers by creating a positive attitude and feeling towards that company’s product. With a positive image in mind of a particular product, there is a greater likelihood that the consumer will purchase the product (Dillman Carpentier, 2010). An average of more than 9.5 hours of media is taken in by the average American on a daily basis; of those hours, 38% is dedicated to music – all of which affects mood in some way (Knobloch, 2003). In addition, according to Dillman Carpentier, 90% of commercials include music of some sort (2010). The preceding statistics show the value of music to consumers and therefore, reflect the importance music-induced moods have in marketing. Enhanced Performance Not only is music able to affect one’s mood but it is also capable of increasing the performance of an individual (North & Hargreaves, 1999). According to Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky, the IQ scores of the participants of their study were highest when the participants were under the influence of music (1993). In the other two trials, the participants went through a relaxation process and sat in silence for 10 minutes; the scores were 2.95 and 3.56 points respectively lower (Rauscher, Shaw, & Ky, 1993). Some teachers have started using music to increase the focus and efficiency of students. Relaxing music is played to keep the students’ minds from wandering and, instead, concentrated on the lesson. The relaxing music causes one’s brainwave frequencies to alter, entering the alpha state. The alpha state has been found to be the state where the best connection to one’s subconscious is made (Fassbender, Richards, Bilgin, Thompson, & Heiden, 2012). Koenen’s and Restak’s (as cited in Fassbender et al., 2012) findings have both supported that music inhibits thought. Restak’s claim is based on a study conducted with surgeons as the participants. Due to differing parts of the brain being used for music and for physical tasks, the music doesn’t inhibit the task but keeps the other part of the brain occupied and, therefore, from becoming distracted (Fassbender et al., 2012). In another study, surgeons were asked to count backwards by various numbers under three different conditions and were monitored throughout their tasks. The different conditions were no music, music of personal preference, and experimenter-selected music. Each surgeon was individually tested and each surgeon’s blood pressure, pulse, timing, and accuracy were recorded. The results showed a significant difference among the three conditions and the areas being monitored. The surgeons’ blood pressures and pulses were at much higher levels when performing the tasks without music. The results of the tasks with the presence of music showed lower blood pressures and pulses but an increase in the speeds and accuracies of the surgeons. Of the two music conditions, the overall results of the surgeons were better when listening to music of their choice rather than the experimenter-selected music. The participants of the study are of a profession that undergoes much stress in the operating room; by listening to music of their choice, the effects of stress decrease and the quality of performances increase (Allen & Blascovich, 1994). The studies of Dr. Adrian C. North provide several benefits of music for employers and employees. As previously mentioned, music can affect one’s mood. In the workplace, putting the employees in a better mood will increase their productivity by improving how well they interact with their fellow employees. It has been proven that one’s mood and helpfulness are directly related (North & Hargreaves, 1999). Music has also been found to raise the employee morale, leading to a decrease in the number of absences (Furnham & Bradley, 1997; North & Hargreaves, 1999). The output per employee can also be increased in a work field involving repetitiveness. According to Johnson (2004), participants of his study (whose work was repetitive) matched the tempo of the music being played while working. Therefore, with the addition of music – causing a better mood, cooperation, and increased pace – the overall productivity and efficiency of the workforce can increase and, in turn, boost the company revenue. Music is a friend of labour for it lightens the task by refreshing the nerves and spirit of the worker – William Green ( quoted in Furnham & Bradley, 1997) Increased Memory Although music and its relationship to human memory are still being researched, scientists do know that music affects several parts of the brain (Weir & Nevins, 2010). Cognitive neuroscientist, Petr Janata, says, â€Å" It [music] calls back memories of a particular person or place, and you might all of a sudden see that person’s face in your mind’s eye† (Weir & Nevins, 2010, p. 12). According to John Sweller, one must relate what is being learned to something that is already known (2003). Studies have proven the word-for-word is much higher when heard with music than when heard without music (Wallace, 1994). Wallace also suggests the musical accompaniment is used as a retrieval device or as an aid in the way the words are stored. The belief is that the music accents the words being spoken by acting as a cue when determining the number of syllables in a word and words in a verse (Wallace, 1994). It has also been shown that some memories are solely dependent on music being the trigger to recall them (Balch & Lewis, 1996). In marketing and advertising, music plays a significant role on one’s memory. Most can probably identify the brand image, along with the melody, by simply reading, â€Å"five, five-dollar foot long† (Weir & Nevins, 2010) due to the capability of music that allows one to recall melody and image from the text read (and the contrary) (Wallace, 1994). Pertaining to memory, music can also serve as an aid in health services (Simmons-Stern, Budson, & Ally, 2010). According to a study by Simmons-Stern et al., patients with Alzheimer’s disease were able to recall more of the information they were given when it was sung rather than spoken. It is thought to be possible that these findings may aid in discovering a treatment for Alzheimer’s disease patients (Simmons-Stern et al., 2010). Conclusion There is no doubt music plays a role in everyone’s life in some way. The effects of music are nearly unavoidable due to the fact that music is incorporated into such a variety of activities and places and can cause differentiating feelings and results. Sad music can spread sadness (through emotional contagion) and infect the listener with that sadness, causing the listener’s mood to worsen. On the contrary, music is also able to make one feel happy (Davies, 2011). In the workplace, music is able to improve the mood of employees, motivate employees, and quicken the pace of the work being done (Furnham & Bradley, 1997). By playing upbeat music where the work to be done is monotonous, the workers are less irritated and fall in rhythm with the beat of the music. A workforce that has a higher rate of productivity can ultimately benefit the company by increasing the profits (North & Hargreaves, 1999). Music also accentuates words and increases the memorabilia of those words; this can be quite beneficial in advertisements (Weir & Nevins, 2010). Another benefit music offers, with regards to memory, is as a possible treatment for patients with Alzheimer’s disease (Simmons-Stern, Budson, & Ally, 2010). Regardless of being a form of nonverbal communication or where it may appear, music strongly affects human beings with its ample array of capabilities. References Allen, K. P., & Blascovich, J. P. (1994). Effects of Music on Cardiovascular Reactivity Among Surgeons. Journal of The American Medical Association, 272(11), 882-884. Balch, W. R., & Lewis, B. S. (1996). Music-Dependent Memory: The Roles of Tempo Change and Mood Mediation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22(6), 1354-1363. Davies, S. (2011). Infectious Music: Music-Listener Emotional Contagion. In A. Coplan, & P. Goldie, Empathy: Philosophical and Psychological Perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press. Dillman Carpentier, F. R. (2010). Innovating Radio News: Effects of Background Music Complexity on Processing and Enjoyment. Journal of Radio & Audio Media, 17(1), 63-81. Douglas Olsen, G. (1995). Creating the Contrast: The Influence of Silence and Background Music on Recall and Attribute Importance. Journal of Advertising, 59(4), 29-44. Fassbender, E., Richards, D., Bilgin, A., Thompson, W. F., & Heiden, W. (2012). The Effects of Music on Mem ory for Facts Learned in a Virtual Environment. Computers and Education, 58(1), 490-500. Furnham, A., & Bradley, A. (1997). Music While You Work: The Differential Distraction of Background Music on the Cognitive Test Performance of Introverts and Extraverts. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 11, 445-455. Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Rapson, R. L. (1993). Emotional Contagion. Current Directions in Psychological Sciences, 2(3), 96-99. Hunter, P. G., Schellenberg, E. G., & Schimmack, U. (2010). Feelings and Perceptions of Happiness and Sadness Induced by Music: Similarities, Differences, and Mixed Emotions. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 4(1), 47-56. Johnson, V. W. (2004). Effect of Musical Style on Spontaneous Exercise Performance. Journal of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation, 24, 357. Kellaris, J. J., Cox, A. D., & Cox, D. (1993, October). The Effect of Background Music on Ad Processing: A Contingency Explanation. Journal of Marketing, 57, 114-125. Knobloch, S. (200 3, June). Mood Adjustment via Mass Communication. Journal of Communication, 53(2), 233-250. North, A. C., & Hargreaves, D. J. (1999). Music and Driving Game Performance. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 40, 285-292. North, A. C., & Hargreaves, D. J. (1999). Musical Tempo, Productivity, and Morale. Unpublished Manuscript. Rauscher, F. H., Shaw, G. L., & Ky, K. N. (1993). Music and Spatial Task Performance. Nature, 365, 611. Simmons-Stern, N. R., Budson, A. E., & Ally, B. A. (2010). Music as a Memory Enhancer in Patients with Alzheimer’s Disease. Neuropsychologia, 48, 3164-3167. Sweller, J. (2003). Evolution of Human Cognitive Architecture. San Diego: Academic Press. Troester, R., & Mester, C. (2007). Chapter 7: Nonverbal Civility. In Civility in Business & Professional Communication (pp. 87-105). Peter Lang Publishing, Inc. Wallace, W. T. (1994). Memory for Music: Effect of Melody on Recall of Text. Jornal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20(6), 1471-1485. Weir, K., & Nevins, D. (2010). Music and Your Mind. Current Health Kids, 34(1), p. 10.